Book Design, Attention, and Reading Performance: Current Practices and Opportunities for Optimization (Godwin, Eng, Murray, and Fisher, 2019)
LINK: https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10166669
Standard - More cluttered, text being presented on images. Streamlined - Simpler, more clean.
These results indicate that reading in the Streamlined condition resulted in higher comprehension compared to reading in the Standard condition, (why is this? look into the reason) regardless of the amount of time spent reading, the quantity of words a child accurately read aloud, and the order in which the layout was presented. This informs our understanding of how beginning readers allocate their attention while reading independently, and identifies a design feature that influences children's ability to maintain attention to the text. This finding corroborates prior work (Eng et al., 2018).
Do You Get the Picture? A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Graphics on Reading Comprehension
- Carney and Levin’s (2002) quantitative review examined empirical studies published between 1990 and 2002 exploring “why” and “when” graphics are effective. Findings indicate that illustrations with specific functions improved students’ learning.
- Remember this when starting on practical, imagery needs to be considered in relation to the text and with a purpose. - Vekiri concluded that graphics are effective only when they allow readers to interpret and integrate information with minimum cognitive processing.
- Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML; Mayer, 2005), grounded in DCT (Duel Coding Theory), predicts learning in multimodal environments and informs principles of multimedia design (Mayer, 2009).
- Is this on screen and off? Or could this be brought in relation to interactive design? - CTML predicts that graphics promote higher level learning.
- In reference to diagram design, CTML emphasizes the coherence principle (Mayer, 2009) in which extraneous information is removed, thus focusing learners’ attention on the essential information.
- Extraneous information is referring to anything that isn't essential to the text. This supports Godwin et al, 2010 above that found imagery with 'streamlined' design is more effective at supporting learning.
Impact of static graphics, animated graphics and mental imagery on a complex learning task (Lai, and Newby, 2020)
Results from Study:
- Participants in each of the graphic interventions showed significantly greater levels of performance than those individuals who did not receive some form of graphical intervention.
- As predicted by the multimedia principle, those receiving text and graphics consistently outperformed those who received textual materials only.
- Having graphics included is better than not having them.
- But what type of graphics and why? - Participants receiving a set of gradient static graphics reported higher scores for both immediate and delayed post-tests when compared with participants from other groups.
- It is also important to note that the difference between those receiving the gradient static graphics and those receiving the animation was not statistically significant.
When Static Media Promote Active Learning: Annotated Illustrations Versus Narrated Animations in Multimedia Instruction. (Mayer, Hegarty, Mayer, and Campbell, 2005)
- students who learned from computer-based narrated animation (which can be called dynamic media) did not score significantly better on posttests than did students who learned from paper-based illustrations and printed text (which we can be called static media).
- In four of eight comparisons, across four different studies, the paper group scored significantly higher than the computer group. They help to show concisely that there was support for the static media hypothesis—that is, some evidence that people engage in less extraneous processing and therefore are able to engage in deeper cognitive processing when they learn from static illustrations and text rather than the dynamic animations and commentaries.
- 'First, the paper treatment involves simultaneous presentation of the frames whereas the computer presentation involves successive presentation of the frames. Second, the paper treatment is learner controlled because the learner can determine the pacing and order of the presentation simply through eye movements, and the computer treatment is instructor controlled because the narrated animation is presented at a fixed pace.'
Andragogy – Adult Learning Theory (Knowles)
Andragogy - Adult Learning Theory (2017) esthermsmth, [online] Available at: https://www.learning-theories.com/andragogy-adult-learning-theory-knowles.html#:~:text=Summary%3A Andragogy refers to a,motivated%2C and ready to learn [Accessed 9 August 2020].
Andragogy refers to a theory of adult learning that details some of the ways in which adults learn differently than children. For example, adults tend to be more self-directed, internally motivated, and ready to learn.
Adults can direct their own learning and should have choice in doing so.
As adults have an array of past experiences they can draw on these when learning new things.
Understand the value of learning more, as well as practical benefits of learning.
May have an internal motivation that is stronger than a childs.
Suggested that learning is more on a scale from assisted to self directed, rather than being clear cut by age groups.
Grid Systems in Graphic Design: Joseph Muller-Brockmann (Müller-Brockmann, 2019)
Page 10, Mentions how working to a grid system allows you to laws of 'universal validity'. Including:
- The will to systemise, to clarify
- The will to penetrate to the essentials, to concentrate
- The will to cultivate objectivity, instead of subjectivity This is an interesting design observation, using the grid system as a base to develop a specific way of directing the reader. Grid systems allow information to be presented in a way that makes it easy for the audience to navigate - a key aspect of reading from paper.
Page 11, 'The grid divides a two-dimensional plane into smaller fields' Thinking about how grids can be used to develop a topography of the page (like in previous reference). Can remember things about the page as we remember the design of the page.
'The rule: The fewer differences in the size of the illustrations, the quieter the impression created by the design.' pg 11
'If the text and pictures are arranged systematically, the priorities stand out more clearly.' pg 12
'Information presented with clear and logically set out titles, subtitles, texts, illustrations and captions will not only be read more quickly and easily but the information will also be better understood and retained in the memory.' pg 13
'Again the typographic design, i.e. the correct spaces between letters and words and the length and spacing of lines conducive to easy reading, does much to enhance the impression created.' pg 15 'The type designs of Berthold, Helvetica, Folio, Univers etc. produce pleasant and easily legible type areas.'
'Printed matter in normal format is generally read with the eye at a distance of 30-35cm. The size of the type should be calculated with this in mind. Both too small and too large a type costs the reader an effort. He tires more rapidly.' pg 30
'Every difficulty standing in the readers way means loss of quality in communication and memorability.' pg 30
Column width effects line length, which effects font size. All these individual components need to work harmoniously otherwise the reader will tire or become distracted by an issue in the design. So with this being said what is a spatio-temporal marker going to be in a publication? Is it a specific heading that is bold thus standing out from the rest of the page. Could it be the thickness of a page in the book, allowing a topography to be made?
Grid Systems
Page 69 - Fig 10, 11, 12, 13 All have the same 36 field grid. Present different layouts to the same grid, creates a predictable visual for the eye to follow but not so that it gets repetitive and reader loses interest.
Fig 10, 'The display face and the two text columns are in the grid network. The empty white space between title and text columns emphasises the importance of the title because it creates the impression of a rest zone.' pg 69
Fig 11, the images are arranged ontop and side by side, this allows the images to work with each other and not stand out in their own right. This is a choice of the designer.
Fig 13, 'A simple combination of large pictures with small upright, square and oblong pictures may be sufficient o create a lively impression providing text and pictures are themselves vivid and informative.' pg 70
'Illustrations, tables, statistics, etc. are treated like grid fields,' pg 60
Reading linear texts on paper versus computer screen: Effects on reading comprehension (Mangen, Walgermo, and Brønnick, 2013)
Introduction to Psychology - Haig Kouyoumdjian (Plotnik, and Kouyoumdjian, 2013)
Haig Kouyoumdjian published a book that aimed to enhance the learning for those reading it. The book is titled 'Introduction to Psychology', and the description of the design goes like:
This modular, visual approach to the fundamentals of psychology--the pioneer of the "visual" or "magazine" style approach--makes even the toughest concepts engaging and entertaining. Each and every page is individually planned, written, and formatted to effectively incorporate the use of Visual Cues, which help you to better remember information. Extensively updated, the text also utilizes "chunking," a method of breaking concepts down into small, easily digested sections that help you learn at your own pace.
The design of the books is still very 'textbook', it has a similar essence to a magazine as intended but a lot of the other design choices enforces a very child orientated aesthetic. If I were to look at it I would assume it's a textbook for the purpose of learning before anything else.
San Forgetica - Memorable Typeface
"Sans Forgetica works by a learning principle called 'desirable difficulty,' which is where an obstruction is added to the learning process in order to promote deeper cognitive processing, which results in better memory retention," Jo Peryman
- Interesting notion, but doesn't this go against Joseph Muller-Brockman and his statement about obstructions deterring the focus and attention? - 'Every difficulty standing in the readers way means loss of quality in communication and memorability.' (pg 30)
'The same simple puzzle that makes material in Sans Forgetica easier to remember also makes it a little tougher to read, so you likely wouldn't want to read, say, a book or a lengthy article in that font. Instead, increase your retention of the sections of text you most want to recall by highlighting them and changing them into the font.'
Font Size May Not Aid Learning, but Its Style Can ...
And so it goes, researchers say, with most study sessions: difficulty builds mental muscle, while ease often builds only confidence.
In a recent study published in the journal Cognition, psychologists at Princeton and Indiana University had 28 men and women read about three species of aliens, each of which had seven characteristics, like “has blue eyes,” and “eats flower petals and pollen.” Half the participants studied the text in 16-point Arial font, and the other half in 12-point Comic Sans MS or 12-point Bodoni MT, both of which are relatively unfamiliar and harder for the brain to process.
After a short break, the participants took an exam, and those who had studied in the harder-to-read fonts outperformed the others on the test, 85.5 percent to 72.8 percent, on average.
“The reason that the unusual fonts are effective is that it causes us to think more deeply about the material,” a co-author of the study, Daniel M. Oppenheimer. “But we are capable of thinking deeply without being subjected to unusual fonts. Think of it this way, you can’t skim material in a hard to read font, so putting text in a hard-to-read font will force you to read more carefully.”. Then again, so will raw effort, he and other researchers said.
Really interesting discussion point, thinking about how this may impact the design. Having specific elements of the page use a more difficult to read font, where would this be beneficial and to what extent should it be used? If used in body text would the brain get exhausted quickly and reduce the amount of content read?
Working Memory
'When working memory becomes overloaded, the opportunities for active cognitive processing are reduced.' - http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/downloaddoi=10.1.1.108.6458&rep=rep1&type=pdf
'Chunks reduce the load on WM, thereby improving memory for other information maintained concurrently.' - https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/151291/1/Thalmann.et.al.Chunking.final.pdf
Construction of Cognitive Maps to Improve Reading Performance by Text Signaling: Reading Text on Paper Compared to on Screen (Shi, Tang, and Yin, 2020)
This study randomly divided 75 college students into a paper reading group and an on-screen reading group. Both groups were tested for navigation and reading comprehension in response to three different forms of signaling
The results showed that when plain text was presented, the navigation and comprehension scores of the paper reading group were significantly higher than those of the on-screen reading group.
When the human brain collects visual information about an object, it also collects information about its surroundings and connects them together (Jabr, 2013; Li et al., 2013).
- Thinking about mental map development and how someone remembers a publication. What are the processes involved with this and how can design be incorporated into the discussion?
During the reading process, readers first identify “landmarks,” namely, important concepts, knowledge, or information. Then, they construct routes between the landmarks, i.e., front and back, far and near, as well as hierarchical relationships between concepts, knowledge, or information in logical and spatial positions. Finally, they integrate these landmarks and relationships into survey knowledge, i.e., build textual cognitive maps (Foo et al., 2005; Voeroes et al., 2011).
The construction of such cognitive maps not only helps to locate the content that has been read, but also leads to more effective retention and recall of text information (Rothkopf, 1971; Lovelace and Southall, 1983; O’Hara et al., 1999; Morineau et al., 2005).
Text signaling is one of the most used reading strategies (Li et al., 2016). Text signals include words, phrases, sentences, or special symbols that can appear in different places within a text, but rather than adding any new content, they emphasize the structure or specific content of the text (Britton et al., 1982; Lorch, 1989; Van Gog, 2014).
In multimedia learning, it is also known as the signaling principle or cueing principle, and it refers to the finding that people learn better when signals are added that guide attention to certain elements of the material or highlight the structure (Mayer, 2005; Van Gog, 2014).
- Like hierarchy, works in a similar way but this is a psychological principle not a design one. Would be good to look into how these processes work, what's similar what isn't?
Signaling forms mainly consist of physical signaling and verbal signaling. Physical signaling is defined as emphasizing important information and words mainly by highlighting, underlining, and bold formatting. Verbal signaling includes headings, summaries, and organizing charts (He and Mo, 2000; Mayer, 2005).
The results showed that the reading comprehension and navigation scores in the case of signaling were significantly higher than those of non-signaling, indicating that signals help to construct cognitive maps during reading, which showed a signaling promotion effect. (The signaling promotion effect is defined as the promotion effect of text signals on comprehension processes and information retention of a text (Lorch et al., 1993; Lorch and Lorch, 1996; He and Mo, 2000).)
First, concerning the impact of signals on background information, rich background information not only helps the brain to process and encode textual content but also facilitates identification of the location and extraction of specific information (Chun and Jiang, 1998; Morineau et al., 2005). - this background information can provide cues of the structure of the text allowing an information rich mental map to be made in the brain.
Whether the text was presented on paper or screen, physical, and verbal signals of texts could help readers to navigate, construct cognitive maps, and improve their reading performance.
Why the Brain Prefers Paper (Jabr 2013)
Understanding the Effect of Font Type on Reading Comprehension/Memory under Time Constraints
Dressler, E. (2019) Understanding the Effect of Font Type on Reading Comprehension/Memory under Time-Constraints. University of Nebraska at Omaha.
based on their test performance, participants comprehended passages presented in Times New Roman better than in Haettenschweiler.
Previous research has shown that more cognitive engagement leads to deeper processing, which helps in encoding and retrieval (Craik & Tulving, 1975). - However these studies have usually been for short passages of text. If an individual has a large amount of text to read in a difficult font more cognitive processing will be to understand the letters in order to read, rather than to understand the content (more extraneous processing = less memory).
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